Download TIMSS 2019 Context Questionnaire Framework (pdf)
School Contexts
A school’s environment and organization can be an important determinant of effectiveness in reaching curricular goals. Accepting that an effective school is not simply a collection of discrete attributes, but rather a well managed, integrated system where each action or policy directly affects all other parts, the TIMSS 2019 school questionnaire will focus on a set of well researched school quality indicators:
- School characteristics and demographics
- Instruction affected by mathematics and science resource shortages
- School emphasis on academic success
- Parents’ perception of their child’s school
- Safe and orderly schools
- Student bullying
- Sense of school belonging
School Characteristics and Demographics
To provide key contextual information about schools, the TIMSS 2019 school questionnaire will collect data from principals on a number of school characteristics including school size, school location, and school composition by economic status and language use. In addition, principals are asked about the proportion of the students who enter school with various early literacy and numeracy skills.
TIMSS results have typically included data on school composition by economic status, measured by principals’ estimates of the percentage of students from advantaged and disadvantaged backgrounds. Since the Coleman report (Coleman et al., 1966), there has been great emphasis on how the socioeconomic composition of the student body is associated with individual student achievement (Martin, Foy, Mullis, & O’Dwyer, 2013; Rumberger & Palardy, 2005; Sirin, 2005). There is evidence that students from disadvantaged backgrounds may have higher achievement if they attend schools where the majority of students are from advantaged backgrounds. Some have attributed this association to peer effects—observing a strong relationship between students and their classmates (Sacerdote, 2011). The higher achievement for students in socioeconomically advantaged schools may also be partially explained by such schools having better facilities, instructional materials, and teachers. For example, in some countries, schools with high proportions of disadvantaged students have difficulty attracting highly qualified teachers (Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner, 2007; Clotfelter, Ladd, & Vigdor, 2010).
Instruction Affected by Mathematics or Science Resource Shortages
Adequate working conditions and facilities, as well as sufficient instructional resources, are important for maintaining a favorable learning environment in schools (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli, & Pickeral, 2009). Although “adequacy” in terms of resources can be relative, the extent and quality of school resources have been shown to be critical for quality instruction (Glewwe, Hanushek, Humpage, & Ravina, 2011; Hanushek, 1997; Hanushek & Wößmann, 2017; Lee & Barro, 2001; Lee & Zuze, 2011). Results from TIMSS international reports indicate that students in schools that are well resourced generally have higher achievement than those in schools where shortages of resources affect the capacity to implement the curriculum.
Through the Instruction Affected by Mathematics Resource Shortages scale and the Instruction Affected by Science Resource Shortages scale, both based on principal reports, TIMSS 2019 will measure how general and subject-specific resource shortages affect curriculum implementation. General resources include teaching materials, supplies, school buildings and grounds, heating/cooling and lighting systems, classroom space, technology-based equipment such as electronic whiteboards, computers and tablets, videos, and Internet access. Subject-specific resources for mathematics and science may include subject-specific software/applications, calculators, laboratory equipment, and instructional materials. In addition, TIMSS typically collects information on whether the school has a library or media center and a science laboratory, as well as the number of computers in the school.
School Emphasis on Academic Success
TIMSS 2019 will ask teachers and principals about the extent to which their school emphasizes academic success. Overall, a positive school atmosphere with high expectations for academic excellence can contribute to the success of a school. Following the TIMSS and PIRLS 2011 school effectiveness study (Martin, Foy, Mullis, & O’Dwyer, 2013), TIMSS 2015 results showed a positive association between academic achievement and a school’s emphasis on academic success. Aligning with the literature on academic optimism (Hoy, Tarter, & Hoy, 2006; McGuigan & Hoy, 2006; Wu, Hoy, & Tarter, 2013), indicators for the TIMSS measure of school emphasis on academic success include school administrators’ and teachers’ expectations for successful curriculum implementation and student achievement, parental support for student achievement, and the students’ desire to achieve.
Schools can also vary on how much they specifically emphasize preparing students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects. The results from TIMSS Advanced 2015, which assessed students at the end of secondary school, showed a relationship between the degree a school supports advanced mathematics and physics education and achievement. Indicators of school STEM support include school initiatives promoting student interest in the subjects, such as after school activities, as well as STEM-specific professional development programs for teachers.
Parents’ Perceptions of Their Child’s School
TIMSS 2019 will collect information on what parents think about their child’s school, by asking parents to indicate their level of agreement with statements that evaluate the school academically as well as school safety and the extent that schools communicate with and involve parents in their child’s education. TIMSS 2015 results show that most parents tended to be satisfied with the school their child attended, which is consistent with results from other educational surveys (Barrows, Peterson, & West, 2017; Stacer & Perrucci, 2013).
Safe and Orderly Schools
TIMSS 2019 will ask teachers and principals to report on school safety and discipline. TIMSS reports have consistently shown a positive relationship between student achievement and teachers’ and principals’ reports that the school is safe and orderly, and school effectiveness research analyzing TIMSS/PIRLS 2011 data showed that school safety was an important predictor of student achievement in many countries (Martin, Foy, Mullis, & O’Dwyer, 2013). Respect for individual students and teachers, a safe and orderly environment, and constructive interactions among administrators, teachers, parents, and students all contribute to a positive school climate and are associated with higher student achievement (Cohen et al., 2009; Greenberg, Skidmore, & Rhodes, 2004; Konishi, Hymel, Zumbo, & Li, 2010). The sense of security that comes from having few behavioral problems and little or no concern about student or teacher safety at school promotes a stable learning environment. A general lack of discipline, especially if students and teachers are afraid for their safety, does not facilitate learning and is related to lower academic achievement (Milam, Furr-Holden, & Leaf, 2010; Stanco, 2012). Schools where there are clear rules and more fairness tend to have atmospheres of greater discipline and safety (Cohen et al., 2009; Gottfredson, Gottfredson, Payne, & Gottfredson, 2005).
Student Bullying
TIMSS 2019 will ask students to report the frequency with which they are bullied. Previous TIMSS reports have shown that bullied students tend to have lower mathematics and science achievement, aligning with findings of other research (Glew, Fan, Katon, & Rivara, 2008; Konishi et al., 2010; Rothon, Head, Klineberg, & Stansfeld, 2011; Rutkowski, Rutkowski, & Engel, 2013). Bullying is repeated aggressive behavior that is intended to harm students who are physically or psychologically less strong, and takes a variety of forms ranging from name calling to inflicting mental and physical harm. Bullying causes distress to victims, leads to low self-esteem, and makes victims feel like they do not belong (Glew et al., 2008). With the prevalence of the Internet, cyberbullying unfortunately appears to be common among students; and, like other bullying, cyberbullying, is associated with low self-esteem, distress, and poor achievement (Mishna, Cook, Gadalla, Daciuk, & Solomon, 2010; Tokunaga, 2010).
Sense of School Belonging
TIMSS 2019 will collect data from students on their sense of school belonging. TIMSS 2015 results showed an association between school belonging and academic achievement, corroborating other research on the subject (Cohen et al., 2009; McMahon, Wernsman, & Rose, 2009). In addition, students’ sense of belonging to their school, also referred to as school connectedness, contributes to their general well-being (Joyce & Early, 2014; McLellan & Steward, 2015; Renshaw, Long, & Cook, 2015). Students with a strong sense of belonging feel safe at school, enjoy school, and have good relationships with teachers and classmates.